The French Creoles of Louisiana

Table of Contents Introduction History of Creoles Traditions, customs, and beliefs Economic and political impact Family and community dynamics Conclusion Works Cited Introduction The story of the United States of America reveals a loaded history of different individuals who came here to start a new life; therefore, this has made the country to be composed of a marriage of cultures. Those who came to this continent were driven by different reasons. Some migrated willingly in order to look for new opportunities while others were forced to come here as slaves or as prisoners. The mixing and blending of these cultures has contributed to the unique American culture.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The French Creoles of Louisiana specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Among the states of U.S., a rich distinctive multilingual and multicultural heritage distinguishes the state of Louisiana since it is has been the home of many ethnic groups of people for a long time. â€Å"Gens de Couleur Libres,† the Free People of Color, which are today commonly referred to as â€Å"Creoles† or â€Å"Creoles of Color† are dominant in the Southern Louisiana state and have distinct cultures (Cable, 1). Even though some of them no longer embrace their heritage left behind by their ancestors, some have preserved it until today. This paper focuses on the French Creoles of Louisiana and their unique lifestyle. In contrast to other ethnic groups in America, the Creoles never came from a native country. The word Creole was initially employed during the 1500s in reference to the descendants of French, Spanish, or Portuguese settlers. Most of these settlers were living in the West Indies and Latin America. The word Creole is borrowed from the Portuguese word crioulo, which refers to a slave born in captivity. During the early years of European colonial rule, only a single definition of the term was acknowledged. However, as the Creole people embraced differing social, political, as well as economic distinctiveness, the term was used to refer to other things as well. In the West Indies, Creole means descendants of the European settlers. However, some individuals of African descent are also referred to as Creole (Hall, 283). In the state of Louisiana, it refers to the French-speaking people of French or Spanish descent whose ancestors were upper class whites, many of whom served as officials during the colonial reign of the French and the Spanish. In the 1700s and the 1800s, the Creoles established a different caste that used the French language and held on to the traditional cultural attributes of related social groups in France. Most of them were Catholics. However, they were the first French group to lose their culture to a more â€Å"American† way of life and in the late twentieth century, they had lost most of their values as a people. Caver and Williams note, â €Å"Creoles of color, the descendants of free mulattos and free blacks, are another group considered Creole in Louisiana (para. 1).Advertising Looking for research paper on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More History of Creoles During the 1600s, a number of French explorers and settlers arrived in the U.S. where there dominant presence continued until late 1700s when France ceded Louisiana to Spain. In spite of the coming of the Spanish, French customs and language were still dominant in the continent. The majority of the Creoles, however, are the descendants of French colonials who fled the slave revolt, which took place in 1791 to challenge the oppressive French authority. During the slave revolution, the French ran away from Haiti to other areas which were safer and most whites either were killed or fled, many with their slaves. Many mulatto freemen also suffered the same fate. These events led to the establ ishment of an independent country named Haiti. By 1815, more than eleven thousand migrants had found a new home in New Orleans. When Toussaint L’Ouverture (1743-1803), a self-taught slave, became the ruler of Haiti in 1801, he sent more exiles to the Gulf Coast whereby some settled in the current state of Louisiana while others in Cuba. Among the ones who fled to Cuba, most of them came to New Orleans during the early nineteenth century. This took place after the U.S. bought the Louisiana territory in 1803. The movement of refugees from Haiti and Cuba to St. Martinsville, Napoleonville, the rural areas outside New Orleans, and along the Mississippi waterway led to the doubling of the population of New Orleans. In the state of Louisiana, the word Creole started to be used in reference to descendants of Africans or those from racially mixed mothers and fathers. French and Spanish descendants who were not born in the colonies were also being referred to as such. Caver and Willia ms note, â€Å"Persons of French and Spanish descent in New Orleans and St. Louis began referring to themselves as Creoles after the Louisiana Purchase to set themselves apart from Anglo-Americans who moved into that area† (para. 5). Presently, the word Creole can be used to refer to many things. One of Louisiana historians called Fred B. Kniffin has emphasized that the term Creole â€Å"has been loosely extended to include people of mixed blood, a dialect of French, a breed of ponies, a distinctive way of cooking, a type of house, and many other things† (as cited in Caver and Williams, para. 5). According to this definition, it implies that the term is not specific and one should not attempt to define it as such. Louisiana Creoles of color were regarded as dissimilar and detached from other people. As much as these Creoles of color were different from both blacks and whites, they never stayed away from active public life. They formed a component of the elite society. In the 1800s, they were leaders in commerce, agricultural production, politics, and as slaveholders.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The French Creoles of Louisiana specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nevertheless, by 1724, the Code Noir (Black Code) had described their legal standing and they were given the mandate to own slaves, own real estate, and be recognized in the courts. However, they were not allowed to vote or marry white people. On any official document, they had to identify themselves as either f.m.c. or f.w.c. (free man or woman of color). The term Creole was mainly used as an expression of parochial and colonial administration during both the French and the Spanish rule and the people of the colony forged a new local identity. Nevertheless, it is important to note that those who were born in the New World, as opposed to Europe, were called Creole (Logsdon). The language of the colony was Par isian French; however, afterward it was modified to incorporate some local words. The white French Creoles talked in the Colonial French since it started to become different from the original version of French as spoken in France. Africans who were born as slaves were also called Creole. This was to differentiate them from the new African arrivals. With time, the black Creoles and Africans formed a blend of a French and West African language referred to as Creole French or Louisiana Creole French, which was used in some situations by slaves, farmers, and free people of color alike and it is still being spoken today in central Louisiana. Creole French is no longer spoken in New Orleans but only certain words and expressions are still present. Similar to other regions within the American continent, which were being ruled by foreigners, the Louisiana region also had a mixed-race group, of which there were several free people of color. During the early years when the colonialists settle d in the region, the free people of color resulted from the relationship between the colonialists and the local women. This is because there were a less number of European women in the colony. In most cases, French males took slaves to be their mistresses, or common law wives, and at times married them, which led to the increase in the number of free people of color (gens de coleur libres). Even when more European women came into the colony, an informal union between gens de coleur libres and the whites was still practiced. This system was called placage and it served the purpose of benefitting both the parties. This arrangement was practiced since it was against the law for any woman of color to enter into a marriage relationship with a white man.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A free woman of color who was fair to look at was presented at â€Å"Quadroon† balls. This is similar to debutante balls commonly practiced in our society today. The woman’s mother and some close relatives would accompany the beautiful woman to the balls so that she can meet with her potential protector. Once the woman had danced with the man, and she got interested in him, the relatives would then enter into discussions in order to find something that the young man would give them in exchange for their daughter. The man was to be capable of providing the young woman with a well furnished home having an adequate number of servants and every child resulting from the relationship had to receive proper treatment until adulthood. The sons were to be sent to France for better education leaving their sisters behind to receive teachings from the local convent institutions. The children from such unions would benefit from the transfer of social capital from their parents once they died. Such kind of marriage arrangements would most of the time last for the entire lifetime of both the parties involved. Sometimes, the union culminated upon the marriage of the man. It was a common practice for white Creole males to marry in their thirties to their fellow white Creole females. Since family members arranged most of these marriages, the Creole man’s union with the free woman of color would be maintained; however, if it were not maintained, the woman would be obliged to look for other means of taking care of herself and her family. This would include, but not limited to, business projects and activities such as hairdressing and sewing. The system of placage was not the only way that the free women of color could earn a living since most of them were married and had typical households throughout their lifetime. As a group, the free people of color started to acquire education and skills while preserving their French social customs, which they changed with some components of their ancestry as well as with the Louisiana culture. As their population increased, the French –speaking mixed race or mulatto population practiced intermarriages within themselves for sustaining their class and social culture. Eventually, they came to be referred to as Creoles of color and they were more affluent and better established than the Africans in other parts of Louisiana were. The settling of the Americans from New England and the South triggered a cultural conflict since some of them were not pleased with elements of cultural and linguistic climate that was prevalent in their newly acquired territory. These issues were related to the dominance of French language and Catholicism, the free class of mixed-race individuals, and the strong African customs of the slaves; therefore, they made concerted efforts through the U.S.’ first Louisiana governor, W.C.C. Claiborne, to reverse the trend (Bell, 9). Claiborne eventually gave in due to the p ressure from the Americans and made a fast decision to make English the official language in the region. However, the French Creoles of New Orleans were not pleased with the decision. They went to the streets and protested against the initiatives that the Americans were making to change aspects of their lifestyles. Moreover, upper class French Creoles viewed the Americans as uncivilized. This was in particular to the ill-mannered Kentucky traders who often visited Louisiana with flatboats having goods for sell. Efforts by the Americans to enforce a binary culture that was dividing the people into black and white were greatly opposed by the natives. This is because the locals were accustomed to one, which had a fluid upper class of mixed-race individuals. Upon recognizing that the inputs of both the white ancestry and the free people of color were essential for development to be achieved in Louisiana, the governor reinstated French to be used as an official language throughout the st ate. Consequently, the language was the medium of communication in state functions, community meetings, as well as in the Catholic Church. Of much essence is that both the Colonial French and Creole French were maintained as the language of most people in Louisiana, which enabled the emergence of affluent and educated group of mixed-race Creoles. New Orleans was separated into Latin and American populations in which the former were found east of Canal Street whereas the latter were found left of it up to the late nineteenth century. Out of a total number of eighteen governors that served from 1803 to 1865, a third of them were French Creole and they new no other language apart from French. During the times when the Americans started to arrive in Louisiana in the early nineteenth century, the locals distinguished themselves as French Creoles in order to differentiate themselves from the Americans who were new in the city since they wanted to protect their identity with an iron fist. During the French and Spanish government, Louisiana was recognized as a three-tiered society and it enabled the gens de coleur libres to have the necessary identification that they needed. During this time, In Louisiana, the majority of the free people of color were of mixed race and they worked hard to obtain education, wealth and essential skills in artistry in the colony. In attempts to preserve their social and political identity, the previous free people of color started to use the term ‘Creole’ and they were native speakers of both Colonial French and Louisiana Creole. The gens de couleur libres were threatened with the outbreak of the American Civil War (Sybil, 301). This is because the outbreak of the conflict was intended to end slave trade and ultimately end a three-tiered society, which made them to be rich. The promised rights and opportunities for the slaves brought considerable threat to the identity and position of the gens de couleur libres. After the de feat of the Confederate forces, the Americans slowly watered down the Louisiana three-tiered society. The Americans had embraced the idea of the binary division of individuals according to their races. By the late nineteenth century, more and more people migrated to New Orleans and Louisiana. Since most of them were English-speakers, French was no longer recognized as an official language in the areas. Currently, French or Louisiana Creole is mainly spoken in the rural areas and both the white and mixed-race Louisiana Creole peoples are still being influenced by the French way of life. Traditions, customs, and beliefs White Creoles imported most of their household equipment from France. This made them to be immersed in an entirely French atmosphere. A major component of Creole social life has been built around the French Opera House. From the mid nineteenth century to early twentieth century, the operas were great social and cultural affairs. The French Opera House, which had the ca pacity of 805 people, had a beautiful interior design. The Creoles loved the opera music and were elated in attendance since they were renowned for spectacular get-togethers and impressive partying. The white Creoles did not want to give up on their individualistic lifestyles. They rejected any proposals for intermarriage with the Anglo-Americans and they turned down the idea to learn English as a second language. More so, they were bitter and scornful at the Protestants. They regarded them to be irreligious and wicked. In New Orleans when the French were governing the city, public balls were scheduled to take place at least two times per week. The practice did not stop even when the Spanish took control of the territory. Prominent free people of color and white creoles attended these events on a regular basis. In general, the Creoles were successful in preserving their traditions in the rural sections. However, they gradually lost ground in New Orleans. By the beginning of the nine teenth century, the population of the Creoles was seven times more than the population of the Anglo-Americans in New Orleans. However, by the mid of that century, the Creoles population had dwindled to twice that of the Anglo-Americans. The Anglo-Americans responded by hating the Creoles with equal enthusiasm and steadily, New Orleans started to become two cities in one. Canal Street was the dividing line. To walk across it in either direction, one was heading to a different territory. These distinctions are still evident today. Older Creoles nowadays claim that most of their young people have failed to hold on the basic tenets of social etiquette. They complain that most of them do not observe the use of proper language when talking to others, particularly the adults, and they often greet others hurriedly in an inarticulate fashion. Economic and political impact The gens de couleur libres played a pivotal role in building the economy of the slave societies. In many places, they did various jobs. For example, some worked as artisans and others as small-scale businesspersons in the towns. In several colonies, particularly in the U.S., the creoles were not permitted to own slaves and agricultural land; however, some of them lived in the countryside where they became major slaveholders and owned agricultural land. Most of the free people of color resided on or close to the agricultural estates where they or their ancestors had served as slaves. The plantation owners in most occasions employed the free people of color to manage their farmland. This was more evident in a situation in which there was a family relationship among them. The free people of color were also given positions in the government. Most of them served as rural police officers. Their duties entailed looking for runaway slaves and keeping law and order among the slave population. Their role was important especially in places where the population of the slaves was more than that of the whites. In p laces where the laws of the land allowed it, the free people of color enjoyed various privileges. They obtained fertile land for practicing agriculture and owned slaves. In nearly every slave society in the United States, the free people of color were well-recognized planters. In some states like Louisiana, they owned most property. Some masters who were engaged to women of color also divided some parts of their possessions to them. This was done in at least two ways. First, is under the arrangement of placage. In this case, the mother would solicit for a piece of land or property from the slaveholder. Second, the wealthy slaveholder would make arrangements so that an apprenticeship would trade for his mixed-race children. This gave the children the opportunity to make a skilled living. In the Haiti, the free people of color possessed approximately thirty percent of the entire land and approximately twenty-five percent of the slaves during the late colonial period. Even after the Am erican Civil War that brought the end to slavery, the difference between former free people of color and former slaves was still evident. Since they were better placed in terms of educational achievement and experience, the free people of color were very much instrumental in offering the much-needed leadership for the newly freed. For example, Toussaint Louverture, leader of the Haitian Revolution, and most of the officials of the newly found government, were free people of color. The same situation was evident in the U.S. in which many of them were given the opportunity to serve as local officials during the Reconstruction period. Family and community dynamics In the free people of color homes, men were considered as the heads of their families. On the other hand, women devoted their lives to the service of their families. They met the needs of the widowed and the children among them and sometimes gladly welcomed them to be part of their families. Currently, the free people of colo r are still a closely-knit group and tend to marry within their community; however, most of them are also getting into relationships outside the group and losing their Creole ways. In the old days, the relatives who wanted to preserve the old family trees closely scrutinized Creoles marriages. Therefore, the young people were confined to marry within their own class and every meeting their attended was sternly chaperoned by the older members of the family. Before being formally engaged, a suitor had to seek the consent of the woman’s father. Weddings were opulent affairs that every relative was obliged to attend. The creoles often baptized their children when they were approximately one month old. During baptisms, a godfather (parrain) and a godmother (marraine) gave gifts to the kid. It was a costly honor to be selected as a parrain since one was required to pay for the celebration that followed the baptism. In the old days, when someone passed away, notices were put in the neighborhood to inform people of the funeral service to be held in the home of the deceased. Conclusion The free people of color are an exceptional example of a group, which has historically self-constructed a community identity based in part on social and economic situations and concurrently from a common history, culture and geography (Jolivette, 4). Although the American Civil War affected them, most of them have remained in New Orleans and have introduced their unique culture and heritage to other regions across the United States. From planters to hairdressers, the gens de coleur libres have left a lasting imprint in New Orleans. The beautiful scenery across the state, which is a major tourist attraction, is due to the relentless efforts of the Creoles of color. Works Cited Bell, Caryn C. Revolution, Romanticism, and the Afro-Creole Protest Tradition in  Louisiana, 1718-1868. London: Louisiana State University Press, 1997. Print. Cable, George W. The Creoles of Louisiana. Gret na, La: Pelican, 2000. Print. Caver, Helen B., and Williams Mary T. â€Å"Creoles.† Countries and their cultures. Advameg, Inc. 2010. Web. https://www.everyculture.com/multi/Bu-Dr/Creoles.html Hall, Gwendolyn M. Africans in Colonial Louisiana: the Development of Afro-Creole  Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UP, 1995. Print. Jolivette, Andrew. Louisiana Creoles: cultural recovery and mixed-race Native American  identity. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007. Print. Kein, Sybil. Creole: the History and Legacy of Louisiana’s Free People of Color. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ., 2002. Print. This research paper on The French Creoles of Louisiana was written and submitted by user Justin Casey to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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20 Verbs Smothered by Bes

20 Verbs Smothered by Bes 20 Verbs Smothered by â€Å"Be†s 20 Verbs Smothered by â€Å"Be†s By Mark Nichol Below are phrases in which a form of â€Å"to be† plus an adjective (or a preposition and a noun) and, often, a preposition can easily be replaced by a simple form of the verb (occasionally accompanied by a preposition), resulting in a more concise statement: 1. Before: â€Å"She is able (or unable) to think for herself.† After: â€Å"She can (or cannot) think for herself.† 2. Before: â€Å"This rule is applicable to both scenarios.† After: â€Å"This rule applies to both scenarios.† 3. Before: â€Å"They are authorized (or empowered) to speak on our behalf.† After: â€Å"They may speak on our behalf.† 4. Before: â€Å"The company is benefited by this policy.† After: â€Å"The company benefits from this policy.† 5. Before: â€Å"The agreement is binding upon both parties.† After: â€Å"The agreement binds both parties.† 6. Before: â€Å"The compound is derived from a chemical reaction.† After: â€Å"The compound derives from a chemical reaction.† 7. Before: â€Å"We are desirous of your reply.† After: â€Å"We desire your reply.† 8. Before: â€Å"She is in agreement with us.† After: â€Å"She agrees with us.† 9. Before: â€Å"He will be in attendance at the event.† After: â€Å"He will attend the event.† 10. Before: â€Å"Their behavior is indicative of what you can expect from them.† After: â€Å"Their behavior indicates what you can expect of them.† 11. Before: â€Å"He is in error in his account of the incident.† After: â€Å"He errs in his account of the incident.† 12. Before: â€Å"It was in existence at that moment.† After: â€Å"It existed at that moment.† 13. Before: â€Å"She is influential on his artistic style.† After: â€Å"She influences his artistic style.† 14. Before: â€Å"I am in possession of some incriminating evidence.† After: â€Å"I hold some incriminating evidence.† (In this case, â€Å"I possess . . .† in place of â€Å"I am in possession of . . .† would imply ownership, not temporary possession, which is what the original sentence implies.) 15. Before: â€Å"My colleague is in receipt of the document.† After: â€Å"My colleague received the document.† 16. Before: â€Å"The mechanism will soon be operative.† After: â€Å"The mechanism will soon operate.† 17. Before: â€Å"The company was in violation of several regulations.† After: â€Å"The company violated several regulations.† 18. Before: â€Å"The committee was productive of a thorough report.† After: â€Å"The committee produced a thorough report.† 19. Before: â€Å"This advertising campaign will be effectively promotive of the product.† After: â€Å"This advertising campaign will effectively promote the product.† 20. Before: â€Å"We are supportive of your efforts.† After: â€Å"We support your efforts.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How Many Tenses in English?Work of Art TitlesHow often is "bimonthly"?

The Murderous Cult of Roman Diana and Her Sword-Wielding Priests

The Murderous Cult of Roman Diana and Her Sword-Wielding Priests In the US, the President has to retire after eight years in office, but at least they get to live after their second terms as President. Some of the ancient Romans werent so lucky. In order to become the new priest of the Italian sanctuary of Diana Nemorensis (Diana of Nemi), the incoming priest had to murder his predecessor to get the job! Although the shrine was  located in a sacred grove and near a gorgeous lake, so applications for the position must have been through the roof... Priestly Problems So whats the deal with this sacerdotal situation? According to Strabo, Artemiss worship at the grove of Nemi - included a barbaric ...  element. The priestly turnover was quite graphic, for, as Strabo recounts, the priest had to be a runaway slave who killed the man previously consecrated to that office. As a result, the reigning priest (dubbed the Rex Nemorensis, or King of the Grove at Nemi) always carried a sword to protect  himself against murderous interlopers. Suetonius concurs in his  Life of Caligula.  Apparently, the ruler of Rome didnt have enough to occupy his twisted mind during his own reign, so he meddled in religious rites...Supposedly, Caligula got fed up with the fact that the current Rex Nemorensis had lived for so long, so the dastardly emperor hired a stronger adversary to attack him. Really, Caligula? Ancient Origins and Mythical Men Where did this odd ritual come from? Pausanias states that when Theseus killed his son, Hippolytus - whom he believed to have seduced Theseuss own wife, Phaedra - the kid  didnt actually die. In fact,  Asclepius, god of medicine, resurrected the prince. Understandably, Hippolytus didnt forgive his father and the last thing he wanted was to stay in his native Athens, so he  traveled to Italy, where he set up a sanctuary to his patron goddess, Artemis/Diana. There, he set up a  contest for runaway slaves to become the temples priest, in which they fought to the death for the honor. But according to  the late  antique author Servius, who wrote commentaries on major  epic texts, the Greek hero Orestes had the honor of founding the ritual at Nemi. He rescued his sister, Iphigenia, from the sanctuary of Diana at Tauris; there, Iphigenia sacrificed all strangers to the goddess, as recounted in Euripidess tragedy  Iphigenia in Tauris.   Servius claims that Orestes saved Iphigenia by killing Thoas, king of the Taurians, and stole the sacred image of Diana from her sanctuary there; he brought the statue and the princess back home with him. He stopped in Italy - at Aricia, near Nemi - and set up a new cult of Diana.   At this new sanctuary, the ruling priest wasnt allowed to kill all strangers, but there was a special tree, from which a branch could not be broken. If someone  did  snap a branch, they had the option to do battle with the runaway slave-turned-priest of Diana. The priest was a fugitive slave because his journey symbolized Orestess flight westwards, says Servius. This ritual, then, was Virgils source of material for the legends about the area where Aeneas stopped off in the  Aeneid  to find a magical plant and enter the Underworld.  Sadly for these entertaining tales, neither probably had anything to do with the ritual at Nemi. Issues of Interpretation Aeneas and the slave-priests came up again in modern studies of religion. Ever heard of anthropologist James Frazers seminal work The  Golden Bough? He theorized that Nemi was the spot where Aeneas went to Hades, as Servius suggested. The sacred sparkly in the title refers to a bough, golden leaf and pliant stem Aeneas had to grab in Book VI of the Aeneid  in order to descend to  the Underworld. But Serviuss own claims were spurious at best! This odd interpretation has a long history -  well-chronicled  by Jonathan Z. Smith and Anthony Ossa-Richardson.  Frazer took these ideas and claimed that used the slaying-of-the-priest as a lens through which he examined world mythology. His  thesis - that the symbolic death and resurrection of a mythical figure was the focus of fertility cults across the world - was an interesting one. This idea didnt hold much water, but that  theory of comparative mythology informed the works many historians and anthropologists, including the famous Robert Graves in his  White Goddess  and  Greek Myths, for decades ... until scholars realized Frazer was wrong.

Philosophy Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Philosophy Paper - Essay Example One of the arguments by St. Thomas is the argument that beings (things) are caused, moved or changed by something else. Here we are talking of a beginning or an end. That the Universe began from somewhere. There cannot be at any time we can imagine of vacuum. The ever expanding Universe cannot be imagined to have a beginning, why? Because it could imply again that the Universe has an end. Indeed, can one imagine of a time when there was nothing at all? This implies that an explanation has to be; in order to explain the reason for their existence (being) hence invoking the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR). The basic idea here is that God needs to be posited as the ultimate source or explanation of the existence of all other beings, (Class Notes, 11/27/12). Now consider this argument from Rowel’s book on cosmological argument (24): The argument above maintains that there are only two types of beings that is the self existent being (God-cause) and the depended beings (effects). That any causal series invites us to think of the first cause the uncaused. Premise one depends on PSR which is purely to say that the things in which we experience coming and going out of existence is a mere fact that there must be a superior being that controls or rather brings them into existence and out of existence. This again is to say that every depended being cannot exist on its own without the other or simply put it that one depended being has to be brought forth by the other depended being. Â   Response: There is no way we can talk of a series of dependent beings as if it is a dependent being. I.e. remember that every individual has got his or her own identity and individuality. That the moment I confuse your identity with the other, am automatically saying that the individuality and identity of the first cause (God) is interfered. This again

The United States from the World War II as the Strongest Economy in Research Paper

The United States from the World War II as the Strongest Economy in the World - Research Paper Example Each of the countries which signed their allegiance to the Bretton Woods indicates its recognition of four important factors. This uniformity becomes the cornerstone and the main factor which holds the international economy together. First, all the nations involved recognize and agree that â€Å"the interwar period had conclusively demonstrated the disadvantages of unrestrained flexibility of exchange rates† (Cohen 4). It can be recalled that the Great Depression in the 1930s has become a grim reminder of how floating exchange rates discourages trade and investment while increasing the risk of destabilization and competitive depreciation. On the other hand, architects of the Bretton Woods are also reluctant in adopting a permanently fixed exchange rate like the 19th-century gold standard. Thus, avoiding both maxims, delegates agree on a â€Å"pegged rate† or â€Å"adjustable peg† currency regime or a par value system (Cohen 5). Thus, each country is obligated to choose a par value in their national currency and intervene in order to maintain the exchange rate within 1% above or below the preset rate. Secondly, all nations hold that â€Å"if exchange rates were not to float freely, states would also require assurance of an adequate supply of monetary reserves (Cohen 6).† The financial hegemony held by the United States during the period significantly affected the final decision: â€Å"a system of subscriptions and quotas embedded in the IMF, which itself was to be no more than a fixed pool of national currencies and gold subscribed by each country†.

Uniformity of Accounting Standard and Conceptual Framework Essay Example for Free

Uniformity of Accounting Standard and Conceptual Framework Essay Uniformity of Accounting Standard and Conceptual Framework Executive summery Harmonization of the accounting standard and conceptual framework is emerging as a requirement for of the international community. As business cross national boundaries so the transecting parties need uniformity in the financial reporting for better understanding of the business conditions. The process of harmonization gets accelerated by the initiative of the two major standard setting body of the world IASB and FASB. Although the two authoritative bodies try to uniform the accounting standard but the major concern arises here is the biasness of the influencing nations. In the assignment, pros of the harmonization process is discussed which is essential for international business community. The process is also disturbed by taking into account no consideration of the society and judgment of the professionals. In the assignment some recommendations are made for accelerating the harmonization process. Contents Introduction Economics and politics are the two major elements that shape the accounting standard of a nation. As each and every nation varies in their economic condition, customized accounting standard gets its appeal. Nowadays business is not confined in the national boundaries. With the integration of the worldwide market and the economic forces the process harmonizing the accounting standard has become an emerging issue. In the process independent rather than governmental organization is most appropriate. If we account for the advantages and disadvantages of the harmonization process then in the pros side of the ledger high quality standard of the FASB is the achievement and in the cons side I will posted the biasness of the standard setters. The process reduces the cost of the international community because adding an additional member in the process tends to zero marginal cost of standard setters. Why uniformity in the accounting standard and conceptual framework? With the widespread integration of the markets and policies all over the world, nowadays it becomes inevitable for the financial institutions all over the world to follow a uniform standard for financial reporting. Following the high quality accounting standard tends to a higher standard financial reporting. The pros for informing standard all over the world are as follows: (Ball, ,2005) Maintaining uniformity in financial data presentation: standards are set to guide the contracts of the financial institutions. In the case, if the financial reporting of the entities is different, it causes problem for both the contracting parties in the maintenance of the conditions of the contracts. For example- Company X lends money from Bank Y on the condition that landed amount must not exceed 60% of the total tangible. In the situation valuation techniques of the firms are different then it affects the contract adversely. So following a uniform standard for valuation of tangible asset is a solution of the problem Uniform presentation of financial performance: investors make investment decision based on the financial performance of any firm. In the situation, if the firms follow different standard to represent profitability then it becomes misleading for the investors. Following a uniform standard for reporting can resolve the problem (Lammle, ,2005) Adopting uniformity in the accounting standard offers the society the following three benefits: 1. Uniform accounting standard offers the benefit of economics of scale. Standard once are set, the cost of adding additions user is zero 2. The auditors tasks get easy because all the financial institutions follow uniform policy and procedure for reporting 3. Comparability can be made which reduce the cost of the firms contracting each other Extended cross border transactions: nowadays cross border transaction has been increased. Information about the foreign products and the financial information of the business are now available in internet. As a result, investors invest in foreign firms. In the situation uniform financial reporting gets very important (Buys, ,2011) Uniform financial reporting offers the investors the following benefits: IFRS standards offer a more accurate presentation of the financial data than that of the national standards. Information of some firms is not readily available. In the situation uniformity in accounting standard reduce risks in decision making Usually small investors cannot evaluate all the information than that of professionals. Following the IFRS standard improves the quality of information which ultimately gives the investors more information for access Following the uniform accounting standard serves the purpose of comparability and information accessibility cost gets reduced In IFRS standard emphasis is given for the comparability of information and it becomes more accessible. So integrating the entire world standard with IFRS yields the investors the above benefits. Some other passive pros of uniform accounting standard are as follows: Improve usefulness of financial data Increase transparency which ultimately benefits stakeholders The above two factors tend to reduce agency costs of the firms The above are some of the benefits of harmonization of the accounting standard. The process of harmonization is fueled by the process of globalization. As transactions occurs across national boundaries, there create a need for uniform accounting standard. In today’s business world, transactions cross national boundaries. As a result uniformity in reporting financial data gets very important. IFRS standard plays a vital role in the process of harmonization and many of the European nations follow IFRS. In the process an initiative is taken by USA to harmonize GAAP with IFRS. (HINES, ,2005) Arguments against uniform financial reporting Uniformity in financial reporting is made at the expense of the society. Culture differs in different nations, as a result in the process of uniform accounting reporting cultural aspects are considered. Economic condition of different nations also varies, for example- some are big, and some are small. Uniformity ignores the judgments of the professionals. The process also discourages research in the field and also discourages different ways of financial reporting. Shortcomings of uniform financial reporting are as follows: (Sunder, ,2007) Application of the concept uniformity: the concept of uniformity can never be defined specifically so that the standard setters can apply it in financial reporting. For example- in case of reporting the R D expenditure, management discretion is ignored. In recording the expenditure economic nature of the firm is considered. But the economic condition of the firms is not feasible in many cases. As a result, the uniformity issues creates problem Social norms: the process of uniformity in accounting standard barely considers the issues like cultural, social and political differences in the nations. As a result the process of implementation is affected largely. (Madawaki, ,2012) In applying the standard in the society the standard setters face the following three problems related with the practice in the society: 1. Information problem: in the process of developing standards, the stand makers have very little information about the social circumstances. Standard are set to replace the previous one but the process is very complex. Involvement in the social norms provide more information which is largely ignored in the process 2. Problem in design the standard: in designing standard, it becomes very important to attain representation, impartiality and consistency. The professionals set the standard may not be impartial. In the process, the influencing stakeholders try to influence the standard setting for their benefit. This influence distorts the proper standard setting of the standard setting body. 3. The gaming problem: the development of the standard alters the decision environment of the business firms. Standard also paves some new opportunities. The standard setters do not possess all the information for desired chances as a result misunderstanding arises. The standard setters should ensure that the standards ensure the mutual understanding between the standard setters and the business firms Legal situation of a nation: in the cases where standard is conflicting the low of the nation the jurisdiction of the nation imply it invalid to impose Education and research: in the process of uniformity new standards are set. As a result, the professional teams of the standard setting body have to train the local the professionals in the new standards. In the educational programs also the subject concern with the topic should be amended. This means that the whole system such as: educational materials, accounting software, reporting system all have to be restructured (Agrawal, ,1987) The process of uniformity is questioned by the dominance of some countries. Many nations argue that the head of IASB is the representative of USA. It is a major defense against the standard setting process. In some cases, the judgmental areas of the business firms vary. In the situations, uniformity is somehow impossible. Harmonizing standard with the US GAAP in the uniform of standard is also a major shortcoming. Recommendation The process of harmonization of the two standard setting bodies FASB and IASB has already been started. The process benefits the transactions across national border. Cost of providing information is also reduced. In the situation the process can be successful if it can maintain the following standards: (Barbu, ,2007) To cope with the changing global marketplace, the standard setting body should update the accounting standard in a regular basis and should communicate it with the related parties for implementation The standard setting body should be private and independent to avoid any political pressure of the government which ultimately ensures democracy. In case of governmental standard setting body, there is a chance to be biased in formulating accounting standard In setting the standard the economic variety of the nations should be considered There should be some areas for professional judgment because of the economic variety of the nations To implement the process of uniformity a monitoring sell should be developed. The department oversees the maintenance of the accounting standard. If any nation does not follow the prescribed standard then the department can panelize the nation (Buchanan, ,2007) Conclusion The process of harmonization gets appeal of the international community in the last ten years. The process gets accelerated by the Europeans as they are currently following IAS and IFRS for financial reporting. United States is also a pioneer in the issue by creating a bridge with the international standard with GAAP. In the process the stakeholders gets advantaged by sharing a uniform financial reporting. The cross border relationship is emerged in a new horizon now. The audit process gets the justification in the harmonization process.  But the process is not without some problems also. The process reduces the independent judgment of the auditors. The major stakeholders also influence the standard setting process. An independent private standard setting body is a possible solution to the problem.

Female Ambiguity :: essays research papers

Female Ambiguity: Kirke from The Odyssey vs. Bianca from The Taming of the Shrew   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Women are ambiguous characters throughout texts such as The Odyssey and The Taming of the Shrew. In these two stories, there are female characters that are deceitful and beguiling towards men. Kirke and Bianca are two comparable characters that display such behavior. I will explain how both characters display ambiguity by hiding their true nature behind actions that they wouldn’t normally take; therefore these female characters are being deceitful to those who fall for their actions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kirkie displays her obscure behavior at the point of The Odyssey when some of Odysseus’s crew is sent up to Kirke’s hall. When the men lay eyes on her she is weaving on her loom. Kirke’s weaving is a domesticated action to the crew of Odysseus’ men who witness it. Before the men see her the carnivorous mammals at her entryway that seem to be under her spell intimidate them. Kirke’s weaving alone is not what enticed the men to her, yet it was her singing which was described as beguiling, that made the men believe she was an angel. â€Å"Low she sang in her beguiling voice, while on her loom she wove ambrosial fabric sheer and bright, by that craft known to the goddesses of heaven.† (Homer 171) This action of weaving and singing gains the trust of the weary men who then wish to approach her. The sirens also sing. Somehow with female singing men lose their rational thoughts and become hypnotized by the sound. Weaving is an action used at least by one other female character, Penelope that deceives a large group of men into thinking that the female is harmless and domestic. In this story all the females that sing use it as a lure of the men and it works every time, however the waving trick didn’t work so well for Penelope and her secret of unraveling a shroud she would spend all day weaving was discovered. The crewmen in this part of the story see Kirke singing on the loom and it strikes their hearts and they seem to narrowly forget about the wolves and lions at her entrance only to see her young beautiful image as a fine woman. Polites, one of Odysseus’ crewmen broke the silence held by the men to assure them that this womanly duty Kirkie performs makes her seem harmless and that they should not hide away from her.